IT Project management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

IT Project management - Essay Example In his article, Roetzheim writes about some of the simple methods used to estimate software development projects. Roetzheim begins by writing about estimating a project’s lifecycle and writes about the level of accuracy that can be achieved. Since inaccuracies in estimation result in uncertainties, it is always good to work and reduce inaccuracies in the early stages of software development. This means that once the project is later understood, the inaccuracy level will reduce. The author writes that one of the steps in estimation is estimating project volume. There exists different approaches to this but Roetzheim writes about Constructive Cost Model (COCOMO) that uses Source Lines of Code (SLOC) as a unit of measure. This method uses effort which is the product of Linear Productivity Factor and SLOC. Effort gives an estimate of the person months for the software development project. According to Dhilon, effort is also affected by the size of the project since for a smaller projects, less time is used for communications thus individual productivity is high. Roetzheim’s article goes ahead and explains how to estimate software size and he writes that one can use direct points approach or function points approach. Direct estimation involves breaking down the project and using expert assistance to determine the number of lines of code. Function points method involves creating function points which are later converted to lines of code by a process calle d backfiring. The first step is to determine a logical flow of the software to be developed by identifying the input, processing and output points. Then raw values are extracted from the logical steps created and they are multiplied by a factor to give function points. Lines of code are obtained from the product of these function points and common conversion values

Origin of OSI Model Essay Example for Free

Origin of OSI Model Essay Much of the work on the design of OSI was done by a group at Honeywell Information Systems, headed by Mike Canepa, with Charlie Bachman as the principal technical member. This group was organized within Honeywell, with advanced product planning and with the design and development of prototype systems. In the early and mid 1970s, the interest of Canepas group was mainly on database design and then distributed database design. By the mid-1970s, it become clear that to support database machines, distributed access, and the like, a structured distributed communications architecture would be needed. The group studied some of the existing solutions, including IBMs system network architecture (SNA), the work on protocols being done for ARPANET, and some of the concepts of presentation services being developed for standardized database systems. The result of this effort was the development by 1977 of a seven-layer architecture known as the distributed systems architecture (DSA). Bachman and Canepa participated in ANSI meetings and presented their seven-layer model. This model was chosen as the only proposal to be submitted to the ISO subcommittee. When the ISO group met in Washington DC in March of 78, the Honeywell team presented their solution. An agreement was reached at that meeting that this layered architecture would satisfy most requirements of OSI, and had the ability to be expanded later to meet new requirements. A provisional version of the model was published in March of 78. The next version, with some minor adjustments, was published in June of 1979 and eventually standardized. The resulting OSI model is essentially the same as the DSA model developed in 1977.

Application of Developmental Theories to Education

Application of Developmental Theories to Education Part 1. Purpose My classroom will be a place of respect. It will provide an inclusive and safe environment  that will encourage students to learn. Students are to play an active role in their learning and are  also expected to respect each other and the teacher. Our classroom will foster positive interactions with safe and open communication between students and teachers alike. All individuals shall be respected and respectful of the differences of others. Our classroom will become a community of learners encouraging one anothers personal and academic success. In our classroom we will obey all the rules, be respectful, be organized, and create a safe and positive learning environment. All students will do their best and be successful in all they do. Part 2. The Learner Age and Developmental Characteristics Infants and Toddlers Social Physical Cognitive Emotional Attachment: baby  settles when parent  comforts; toddler  seeks comfort from  parent, safe-base  exploration  5 mo: responsive to  social stimuli; facial  expressions of  emotion 9 mo: socially  interactive; plays  games (pattycake) with caretakers   11 mo: stranger  anxiety; separation  anxiety; solitary play 2 yr: imitation, parallel and symbolic, play Newborn: rough, random, uncoordinated,  reflexive movement   3 mo: head at 90 degree angle, uses arms to  prop; visually track  through midline 5 mo: purposeful grasp; roll over; head lag disappears; reaches for objects; transfer objects  from hand to hand;  plays with feet;  exercises body by  stretching, moving;  touch genitals, rock on stomach for pleasure 7 mo: sits in tripod; push head and torso up off the floor; support weight on legs; raking with hands 9 mo: gets to and from sitting; crawls, pulls to standing; stooping and recovering; fingerthumb  opposition; eyehand  coordination, but  no hand preference 12 mo: walking 15 mo: more complex  motor skills 2 yrs: learns to climb up stairs first, then down Sensori-motor: physically explores environment to learn about it; repeats movements to master them, which also stimulates brain cell development 4-5 mo: coos, curious and interested in environment 6 mo: babbles and imitates sounds 9 mo: discriminates between parents and others; trial and error problem solving 12 mo: beginning of symbolic thinking; points to pictures in books in response to verbal cue; object permanence; some may use single words; receptive language more advanced than expressive language 15 mo: learns through imitating complex behaviors; knows objects are used for specific purposes 2 yrs: 2 word phrases; uses more complex toys and understands sequence of putting toys, puzzles together Birth-1 yr: learns fundamental trust in self, caretakers, environment 1-3 yr: mastery of body and rudimentary mastery of environment (can get others to take care of him) 12-18 mo: terrible twos may begin; willful, stubborn, tantrums 18-36 mo: feel pride when they are good and embarrassment when they are bad 18-36 mo: Can recognize distress in others beginning of empathy 18-36 mo: are emotionally attached to toys or objects for security Preschool Social Physical Cognitive Emotional Birth-1 yr: learns fundamental trust  in self, caretakers, environment 1-3 yr: mastery of body and  rudimentary mastery of environment (can get others to  take care of him) 12-18 mo: terrible twos may begin; willful, stubborn, tantrums 18-36 mo: feel pride when they are good and embarrassment when they are bad Can recognize distress in others beginning of empathy Are emotionally  attached to toys or objects for  security Physically active Rule of Three: 3 yrs, 3 ft, 33 lbs. Weight gain: 4-5 lbs per year Growth: 3-4 inches per year Physically active, cant sit still for long Clumsy throwing balls Refines complex skills: hopping, jumping, climbing, running, ride big wheels and tricycles Improving fine motor skills and eye-hand coordination: cut with scissors, draw shapes 3- 3  ½ yr: most toilet trained Ego-centric, illogical, magical thinking Explosion of vocabulary; learning syntax, grammar; understood by 75% of people by age 3 Poor understanding of time, value, sequence of events Vivid imaginations; some difficulty separating fantasy from reality Accurate memory, but more suggestible than older children Primitive drawing, cant represent themselves in drawing till age 4 Dont realize others have different perspective Leave out important facts May misinterpret visual cues of emotions Receptive language better than expressive till age 4 Self-esteem based on what others tell him or her Increasing ability to control emotions; less emotional outbursts Increased frustration tolerance Better delay gratification Rudimentary sense of self Understands concepts of right and wrong Self-esteem reflects opinions of significant others Curious Self-directed in many activities School Aged Social Physical Cognitive Emotional Friendships are situation specific Understands concepts of right and wrong Rules relied upon to guide behavior and play, and provide child with structure and security 5-6 yr: believe rules can be changed 7-8 yrs: strict adherence to rules 9-10 yrs: rules can be negotiated Begin understanding social roles; regards them as inflexible; can adapt behavior to fit different situations; practices social roles Takes on more responsibilities at home Less fantasy play, more team sports, board games Morality: avoid punishment; self interested exchanges Self-esteem based on what others tell him or her Increasing ability to control emotions; less emotional outbursts Increased frustration tolerance Better delay gratification Rudimentary sense of self Understands concepts of right and wrong Self-esteem reflects opinions of significant others Curious Self-directed in many activities Use language as a communication tool Perspective taking: 5-8 yr: can recognize others perspectives, cant assume the role of the other 8-10 yr: recognize difference between behavior and intent; age 10-11 yr: can accurately recognize and consider others viewpoints Concrete operations: Accurate perception of events; rational, logical thought; concrete thinking; reflect upon self and attributes; understands concepts of space, time, dimension Can remember events from months, or years earlier More effective coping skills Understands how his behavior affects others Self esteem based on ability to perform and produce Alternative strategies for dealing with frustration and expressing emotions Sensitive to others opinions about themselves 6-9 yr: have questions about pregnancy, intercourse, sexual swearing, look for nude pictures in books,magazines 10-12 yr: games with peeing, sexual activity (truth/dare, boy-girl relationships, flirting, some kissing, stroking/rubbing, re-enacting intercourse with clothes on) Social Physical Cognitive Emotional Young (12 14): psychologically distance self from parents; identify with peer group; social status largely related to group membership; social acceptance depends on conformity to observable traits or roles; need to be independent from all adults; ambivalent about sexual relationships, sexual behavior is exploratory Middle (15 17): friendships based on loyalty, understanding, trust; self-revelation is first step towards intimacy; conscious choices about adults to trust; respect honesty straightforwardness from adults; may become sexually active Morality: golden rule; conformity with law is necessary for good of society Growth spurt: Girls: 11-14 yrs Boys: 13-17 yrs Puberty: Girls: 11-14 yrs Boys: 12-15 yrs Youth acclimate to changes in body Formal operations: precursors in early adolescence, more developed in middle and late adolescence, as follows: Think hypothetically: calculate consequences of thoughts and actions without experiencing them; consider a number of possibilities and plan behavior accordingly Think logically: identify and reject hypotheses or possible outcomes based on logic Think hypothetically, abstractly, logically Think about thought: leads to introspection and self-analysis Insight, perspective taking: understand and consider others perspectives, and perspectives of social systems Systematic problem solving: can attack a problem, consider multiple solutions, plan a course of action Cognitive development is uneven, and impacted by emotionality Psycho-social task is identity formation Young adolescents (12-14): self-conscious about physical appearance and early or late development; body image rarely objective, negatively affected by physical and sexual abuse; emotionally labile; may over-react to parental questions or criticisms; engage in activities for intense emotional experience; risky behavior; blatant rejections of parental standards; rely on peer group for support Middle adolescents (15-17): examination of others values, beliefs; forms identity by organizing perceptions of ones attitudes, behaviors, values into coherent whole; identity includes positive self image comprised of cognitive and affective components Additional struggles with identity formation include minority or biracial status, being an adopted child, gay/lesbian identity Diversity In every classroom there will be all types of diversities. A few examples of different types of diversity are: students come from all different racial, ethical, and religious backgrounds. As a teacher it is our job to treat every student equally no matter what kind of background they come from. Some students in our classroom may be originally from a different country and may not speak English; but we have to make accommodations to make sure this child can learn and succeed. In our classrooms we will also have students with different learning disabilities. We have to these into consideration when we plan our lesson making sure we make modifications to help ensure the childs needs are being met. Through out the textbook Comprehensive Classroom Management Creating Communities of Support and Solving Problems, the authors Vern and Louise Jones gathered reasearch and wrote about diversity in the classroom in several chapters. Here is the important information that I found that will assist in having a well managed classroom with a diverse student body. When teachers begin a new school year it is important to get to know who the students are. It is important to get an understanding of their background so a teacher can apply this knowledge to their classroom management. The textbook has a quote from Shevalier and McKenzies (2012) review on culturally responsive teaching that shares where classroom management arose from. It quotes classroom management arose from a family-like community defined by a shared vocabulary, with all responsible to one another to do the right thing. By communicating with the students and their families the teacher learns what is and is not accepted or taught at home. Learning what is accepted in their culture will guide the teacher in how to apply the lesson to the class. Students that move to the United States may have different interpretations of gestures and words and it is important for teachers to know this so no students are offended or class is disrupted. Another important area of a students background is where they live. Being aware of students home life and if they live in poverty areas helps the teachers learn to establish a postitive learning environment. The textbook discusses the article A Framework for Culturally Responsive Teaching written by Raymond Wlodkowski and Margery Ginsberg. (1995) It discusses in poverty areas a learning environment has to emphasize intrinsic motivation. The atmosphere that is created has students and teachers respecting each other, making what is taught relavent to the students, having creative learning experiences that include students input, and making students feel that they are effective in learning something they value. Where students live and what cultures they come from are not the only things that cover classroom diversity. Under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) teachers are to include students with Kathleen Slamka 3 both physical and learning disablities in the general education classroom. Working with in their IEP team it is important for teachers to make these students feel they are competent to participate in class. They need to be treated the same as the other students and to be an effective teacher you need to consider this and work it into your lesson plans. When becoming a teacher it is important for teachers not to just learn how to teach but understand who they are teaching. Classroom diversity is an important part of good classroom mangement. When a teacher goes that extra mile to become involved in students life then the students will succeed under their care Motivation and High Expectations Causes of Low Motivation in Students Pressure Some students respond negatively to pressure and avoid participation because of fear of failure. They appear not to care but are using this to cover their anxiety. Low Classroom Expectations Teachers having poor attitudes and does not focus on students needs and mutual respect. Lack Of Home Support- Parents are less invloved in the students learning and show a lack of importance toward education. Low income parents- Parents are working more and not home enough to meet childs personal and emotional needs. Parents may not make much therefore students are left with little food and clothes that are worn out or outgrown. Low Self Esteem Students- have low self image and see themselves not capable and tasks to hard for them. They avoid doing tasks for fear. According to our textbook (2016), one of the main components of creating high motivation and expectations is creating a safe, calm, and healthy classroom environment. If students feel like they are safe and cared for, they more than likely will do their best. Students can come from all different backgrounds and home lives and it is our job as teachers to take that worry away from them and make them feel safe and loved at school. Another component is making students feel like they can accomplish anything they set their minds to. Some things that organize our thinking about motivation are: Intrinsic Value, which is a students interest or enjoyment with engaging in a task; Attainment Value, which is when a student feels like they can achieve or accomplish a task; and Utility Value, which is when the students feel like what they are learning and doing will benefit their career one day. Teachers feel that student dont see the value in learning the curriculums taught in the classroom. As teachers, we have to create a learning environment that establishes inclusion, develops attitude, enhances meaning, and engenders competence. We have to create a classroom environment where everyone feels respected and valued including the teachers and students; we have to try our best to create a favorable disposition for learning through their personal relevance, we have to create learning that is challenging, and we need to make students feel like they are learning about something they value. Finally, students that are low motivators need help understanding the value of their learning goals, understand the learning process, be involved in the process, have goals, experience success, self-evaluate, receive appropriate rewards, and experience a safe and well-organized learning environment. Academic Learning Goals Teachers responsibility regarding safety Creating a safe classroom environment is one of the key factors for a successful classroom, and it is very important for the students. A lot of classroom problems can be prevented by creating a safe and positive environment for the students. Research has indicated that when students perceive their relationships with their teachers and peers to be positive and supportive their motivation and positive behavior increases dramatically. Students academics will be enhanced when the teacher takes time to respond to the students psychological and personal needs. Creating a safe environment for students will benefit their social, mental, physical, and spiritual needs. A student will always remember a teacher who took the time to get to know them and cared about them. Alabama Educator Code of Ethics Important Laws for Teachers Bullying Laws Alabama has anti-bullying laws and policies. The Student Harassment Prevention Act was signed by Bob Riley on May 29, 2009. Cyberbullying is included in these laws. According to Alabamas Student Harassment Prevention Act says that research confirms that victims of school bullying and harassment suffer detrimental psychological problems that could lead to suicide, behavioral problems, and lower levels of academic achievement. As teachers it is our job to make sure our students are not being bullied, and if we see bullying to take certain protocols to resolve the bullying. No student shall engage in or be sujected to harassment, violence, threats of violence, or intimidation by any other student that is based on any of the specific characteristics that have been identified by the board in this policy. Students who violate this policy will be suject to disciplinary sanctions. IDEA IDEA is the Individuals with Disablities Education Act. This act ensures services for students with disabilities. They provide special education and intervention to students who need the help. IDEA is a law ensuring services to children with disabilities throughout the nation. IDEA governs how states and public agencies provide early intervention, special education and related services to more than 6.5 million eligible infants, toddlers, children and youth with disabilities Due Process According to myaea Students first Act was adopted by the legislature during the 2011 regular session. This act imposed a new tenure system and education support professionals in Alabama.Teachers have the right to hear and contest charges that are placed against the before they lose their jobs. Teachers have a right to a hearing and have the right to appeal the hearings findings. Discipline of Special Needs Students According to IDEA, students with disabilities can be suspended or expelled for violating the schools code of conduct. There are some procedures though, the length of time and type of action, the nature of the conduct that led to the action, and whether it is connected to the students disability. These situations are handled case by case. Dress Teachers are to dress professionally and by their schools dress code policy. Every school district is different in what they have their teachers to wear. FERPA FERPA is the Family Education Rights and Privacy Act. It is to ensure that parents have access to their childrens educational records and to protect the privacy rights of parents and children by limiting access to these records without parental consent. Works Cited Page Denton,Paula, Kriete, Roxann. A Conflict Resolution Protocol for Elementary Classrooms. Creducation.Retrieved from http://web.archive.org/web/20081031103405/http://www.responsiveclassroom.org/pdf_files/feature_10.pdf Jones, Vernon, Jones, Louise. Comprehensive Classroom Management Eleventh Edition p. 4, 49-50, 172-174, 298-299. Alex.State.al.us>stop bullying>mode Http://alex.state.al.us/leadership/Alabama_Educator_Code of_Ethics.pdf http://www.Idea.ed.gov http://www.myaea.org Http://www.brighthubededucation.com/teaching-methods-tips/19619-advantages-of-group-work-in-the-class/ Due Process Laws Vary for Teachers by State. (2014, September 23). Retrieved November 24, 2015, from http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2014/09/24/05tenure.h34.html

Sound Technique in a Sequence from Godards Alphaville :: Godard Alphaville Essays

Sound Technique in a Sequence from Godard's Alphaville What is love? It is an abstract concept, a feeling, a sensibility. Perhaps it is impossible to explain without defining it through observable examples. In film, this is often the way in which the concept of love is explored: definition is established through the words, the looks, and the touches of couples who are engaged in love relationships that are identified as such by a narrative. However, such definitions are bound within the narrative spaces in which they are established; they do not convey a general understanding of what love is. In order to develop a more general definition of the concept, a film must illustrate and discuss it in a manner that transcends narrative boundaries. A sequence in Godard’s Alphaville does this very successfully. Various formal techniques, particularly in the sound track, are employed to remove this sequence from the narrative flow, and the discussion of love that takes place in this part of the film occupies a space that is shared between th e characters, filmmaker, and viewer. The context of this discussion is such that the definition of love is granted a generic currency. The sequence serves as an interlude in the diegesis of the film in which the filmmaker attempts to explore and express a universal truth. The interlude begins with silence. This is the major feature that distinguishes the sequence from the rest of the film: as Natasha turns her gaze to the window all ambient sound dies down, and as it diminishes, so too does the sense of narrative space that has been maintained up until this moment. At this point we experience a suspension of our presence within the narrative space, and we are relocated to a position of distant observation. Soon, a woman’s voice begins to utter lines of poetry. We assume it to be the voice of Natasha, although we do not see her speaking. The voice is rhythmic and languid, and it seems to be very close to us. The voice gives the impression of direct address: it seems to be speaking to us. This sense is supported by the images that compose the visual track: in these, no listener is identified. The images seem to illustrate the information being presented in the audio track. Shots of Natasha and Lemmy are edited together and lit in such a way that they seem to disappear and reappear in a rhythm that mirrors the verbal pulse of the voiceover: ‘Light that goes†¦light that returns. Sound Technique in a Sequence from Godard's Alphaville :: Godard Alphaville Essays Sound Technique in a Sequence from Godard's Alphaville What is love? It is an abstract concept, a feeling, a sensibility. Perhaps it is impossible to explain without defining it through observable examples. In film, this is often the way in which the concept of love is explored: definition is established through the words, the looks, and the touches of couples who are engaged in love relationships that are identified as such by a narrative. However, such definitions are bound within the narrative spaces in which they are established; they do not convey a general understanding of what love is. In order to develop a more general definition of the concept, a film must illustrate and discuss it in a manner that transcends narrative boundaries. A sequence in Godard’s Alphaville does this very successfully. Various formal techniques, particularly in the sound track, are employed to remove this sequence from the narrative flow, and the discussion of love that takes place in this part of the film occupies a space that is shared between th e characters, filmmaker, and viewer. The context of this discussion is such that the definition of love is granted a generic currency. The sequence serves as an interlude in the diegesis of the film in which the filmmaker attempts to explore and express a universal truth. The interlude begins with silence. This is the major feature that distinguishes the sequence from the rest of the film: as Natasha turns her gaze to the window all ambient sound dies down, and as it diminishes, so too does the sense of narrative space that has been maintained up until this moment. At this point we experience a suspension of our presence within the narrative space, and we are relocated to a position of distant observation. Soon, a woman’s voice begins to utter lines of poetry. We assume it to be the voice of Natasha, although we do not see her speaking. The voice is rhythmic and languid, and it seems to be very close to us. The voice gives the impression of direct address: it seems to be speaking to us. This sense is supported by the images that compose the visual track: in these, no listener is identified. The images seem to illustrate the information being presented in the audio track. Shots of Natasha and Lemmy are edited together and lit in such a way that they seem to disappear and reappear in a rhythm that mirrors the verbal pulse of the voiceover: ‘Light that goes†¦light that returns.

Igor Stravinsky Essay

Igor Fyodorovich Stravinsky was born on June 17th, 1882 in Oranienbaum, Russia. He was one of four to his polish parents, Anna nà ©e Kholodovsky and Fyodor Stravinsky. Igor Stravinsky’s first exposer to music was from his father, who was a bass singer at the Mariinsky Theatre in St. Petersburg. His father helped him learn the love of music. His first musical education began at the age of nine with piano lessons, studying music theory, and attempting composition. By fifteen, he had mastered Mendelssohn’s Piano Concerto in G Minor and finished a piano reduction of a string quartet by Glazunov. That same year, Stravinsky rebelled against the Russian Orthodox Church and abandoned it. Even though he excelled in music, his parents still wanted him to become a lawyer. In 1901, Stravinsky enrolls at the University of Saint Petersburg; however he never attends many of his classes during the four years of school. When it came time to take final examinations in 1905, the school w as closed for two months because of Bloody Sunday. He then later received a half course diploma in April 1906. In 1902, Stravinsky began receiving private lessons from Nikolai Rimsky- Korsakov, the leading Russian composer at that time. That very same year Stravinsky’s father dies from cancer. In 1905 Igor Stravinsky proposes to his first cousin Catherin Nossenko. Even though the Orthodox Church opposes marriage of first cousins, they got married on January 23rd, 1906. The same of his marriage, Stravinsky’s creates first important composition Symphony in E Flat. The following year they have their first child Theodore and then the next year they have their second child Ludmila. The same year as Ludmila’s birth, Rimsky, Stravinsky’s father like figure, dies. In 1909, Stravinsky’s compositions, Scherzo fatastique and Feu d’artifice (Fireworks) where performed at a concert in St. Petersburg. In that very audience Serge Diaghilev, founder of the Ballets Russes, was extremely impressed. He was so impressed that he chooses Stravinsky to carry out orchestrations and to compose a full length ballet, The Firebird. In 1910 Stravinsky travels Paris for the premier of The Firebird. At this performance he meets Claude Debussy, Maurice Ravel, and many other important musicians. Towards the end of the ballet season, his family moves to Switzerland with him and, Catherine expecting her third child. In Lausanne, Switzerland in September 1910, Sviatoslav Soulima their third son was born. In 1911, Stravinsky completes another successful ballet, Petrushka. Three years later, Stravinsky composes the two part ballet Le Sacre du Primtemps (The Rite of Spring). This ballet marked the coming of modernism in music and was met with astonishment and hostility. The riot that followed was the most notorious event in music history. Right after the performance, he developed typhoid fever, which took six weeks to recover from. Around the same time, Catherina and Ludmila were found to have tuberculosis. A year later Ludmila did and after giving birth to their fourth child Maria Milena, Catherina also died. Three months after that his mother died also. After all these deaths in his life, Stravinsky also diagnosed with tuberculosis. He spent five months recovering with his newest daughter Milena; she took six years to recover. Stravinsky met Vera de Bosset in Paris in February 1921, his new wife to be. At the time when they first met Vera was still married to the painter and stage designer Serge Sudeikin. They began an affair which led Vera to leave her husband. During his last years in Paris, Stravinsky made professional connections with people in the U.S.

The Person-Centered Approach

The Person-Centered Approach Free Online Research Papers Over the past 50 years, counselors have begun to accept different approaches to the therapeutic process then those used previously. It was because of the initial thoughts put forth by a man named Carl Rogers, and his belief that there is more to the therapy process then the authoritarian approach that was being used at the time. Over the course of 4 phases in Roger’s development came about the concept of the Person-Centered approach. Adopted by counselors in the 60’s and 70’s as a part of the â€Å"Third Force†, along with existential and gestalt therapy, as an alternative to psychoanalytic and behavioral approaches (Corey, 2005). Person-Centered Therapy was never presented as a completed work, rather one of which Rogers hoped other would merely use as principles willing to be evolved. These principles were looked at by Rogers as required to gain a good therapist – client relationship which was a prime determinant of the outcome of the therapeutic process. These principles best outlined by Roger’s (1956) as, Two person’s in psychological contact. The first, whom we shall term the client, is in a state of incongruence, being vulnerable, or anxious. The second person, whom we shall term the therapist, is congruent or integrated in the relationship. The therapist experience unconditional positive regard for the client. The therapist experiences an empathetic understanding of the client’s internal frame of reference and endeavors to communicate this experience to the client. The future has brought about much need for the evolution of this theory, but this paper is meant to focus on these principles set forth by Rogers. Overtime the clients and problems may have changed, but by keeping these principles in mind, the approach is still the same. It was with a humanistic philosophy that Rogers created the person – centered approach, and with his principles rooted deeply in humanistic values, it is necessary to have a good understanding of how they came to be. The humanistic philosophy is similar yet much different from that of existentialism, of which takes the position that we are faced with the anxiety of choosing to create an identity in a world that lacks intrinsic meaning (Corey, 2005). The humanistic philosophy takes a somewhat less anxiety evoking position that each of us has a natural potential that we can actualize and through which we can find meaning (Corey, 2005). It was within this concept that Rogers developed his theory over the years. At the time there was only an authoritarian approach to counseling, of which Roger’s disagreed with, which started his theory of a non directive climate in the 1940’s. It was within this approach that Roger’s looked to stop the amount of input a therapist contributed to the counseling process; instead therapists concentrated on the clients verbal and non verbal communications. This approach over time evolved into a form of therapy referred to as client – centered. With this form Roger’s led away from the focus on the non directive approach and started focusing primarily on the client. With the client in mind, the next period of evolution that Roger’s encountered is where he defined his principles of which he wrote about in his paper, â€Å"The Necessary and Sufficient Conditions of Therapeutic Personality Change.† It is in this paper that Roger’s presented his theory of psychotherapy as a set of therapist â€Å"Core Attitudes† (Prouty, 1994). It is with these â€Å"Core Attitudes† that Roger’s defined the aim of the therapeutic process, â€Å"the aim of therapy is not merely to solve problems, rather; it is to assist clients in their growth process, so that the y can better cope with the problems they are now facing and with future problems.† (Corey, 2005). It was in the principles of; congruence, unconditional positive regard, and accurate empathetic understanding, that we find a way to promote a growth producing climate. Congruence Congruence or genuineness, involves letting the other person know â€Å"where you are† emotionally (Rogers, 1980). This can be either positive or negative, and the therapist must express their feelings to be as genuine as possible. The reason that the therapist must express all feelings toward their client is to avoid the temptations to present a faà §ade or hide behind a mask of professionalism or to assume a confessional professional attitude (Germain, 1993). The reason that it is so important for the therapist to become congruent with their client is to create a trusting relationship of which the client can let the therapist into their lives. Rogers gradually came to look at the therapist’s congruence as a crucial factor in establishing trust, and came to emphasize the idea of acceptance and empathy only being effective when they are perceived as genuine (Germain, 1993). In the views of Rogers it is essential to be living together in a climate of realness (Rog ers, 1980). This realness can only be assumed when the therapist can be completely open with their client as to how they feel about their presenting problem as well as the client’s way of life as a whole. This action of being completely open does not always have to be viewed in a good light by the client, but as long as the client knows that the therapist is being completely open with them, then the process can continue. This way of being is described here by Rogers in 1961, â€Å"The term ‘congruent’ is one I have used to describe the way I would like to be. By this I mean that whatever I am feeling or attitude I am experiencing would be matched by my awareness of that attitude.† It is within this self awareness that makes acceptance possible because there can be no openness to the clients experience if there is no openness to one’s own experience (Germain, 1993). Unconditional Positive Regard Once congruence between the therapist and the client is achieved, it is time to move on to the next principle that Rogers distinguished. Unconditional positive regard is exactly that, no matter what the client is feeling, the therapist must show a positive approval of how they are feeling. This is due to the true importance of unconditional positive regard and its power to build up or restore the client’s unconditional positive self regard (Iberg, 1996). It is Rogers’s theory that most of the clients that a therapist will see, have merely been looked over and never really made feel like they are accepted or cared for. It is within this principal that Rogers attempts to show an acceptance and unconditional caring for the client as â€Å"who they are† rather then who they are expected to be or as Rogers states it as â€Å"a caring for the client, but not in a possessive way or in such a way as simply to satisfy the therapists own needs† (Rogers, 1992). The therapist must make the client feel that they are able to convey their thoughts without fear of rejection or loss of acceptance by the therapist. It is the therapist job to make sure that their basis for caring for their client is not because of their need to be accepted themselves. This might hinder the experience that the client needs to go through as much as if the therapist had no respect or a dislike of their client. That is why congruence needs to be developed before the therapeutic process can begin, without a genuine approach to caring for the client the whole process will not be successful. Accurate Empathetic Understanding After the first two steps of Rogers’s theory have been completed then the therapist can continue on to an accurate empathetic understanding. This principle is based off the idea of empathy as Rogers defines â€Å"to sense the clients private world as if it were your own, but without ever losing the â€Å"as if† quality† (Rogers, 1992). That is the key to being an empathetic therapist, to never lose the â€Å"as if† mentality, to sense the clients feelings without ever getting caught up in them as if they were your own. The Merriam Webster Dictionary states that Empathy â€Å"is the action of understanding, being aware of, or being sensitive to.† This is exactly what Rogers meant by putting it into the principles of what a good therapist needs to do during therapy, to be able to understand and accurately be aware of the problems that the client is conveying. This is indicated in research done by Fieldler in which items such as the following pla ced high in the description of a relationship created by an experienced therapist. The therapist is well able to understand the patient’s feelings; the therapist is never in any doubt about what the patient means; the therapist’s remarks fit in just right with the patients mood and content; the therapists tone of voice conveys the complete ability to share the patients feelings. (Rogers, 1992) With all of these principals working together to create a valuable client-therapist relationship, an accurate empathetic understanding is one of the most important. The client must first be able to trust the therapist, and then feel that the therapist actually cares about what is being said, but without an accurate understanding of what is being said then the client would not feel as though the therapist is actually listening. Summary It was my intent with this paper to explain the principals of the person centered approach created by Carl Rogers. The reason that I feel that this approach is meaningful is that I have always felt that anyone has the ability to figure out their own problems. In life it is easy for people to get knocked off their horse, in a matter of speaking, but it is how we get back on that horse and continue to live is how living life is possible. Sometimes I feel as though it is hard to get up off the ground by yourself but the ability is still inside of you. That is why when I first heard about the person-centered approach, I was so intrigued by the elements that made up this theory. These principles that Rogers has developed, help to create an environment at which clients are able to hash out their problems in a self directed way. The therapist is merely a listener, there to make the client feel that what they are feeling is ordinary. Even though they may long for an authoritarian â⠂¬Å"answer†, the therapist does not give one yet just responds with points that the client has already made. Even though Rogers created this theory in a different time and age, when, if presented with some of the problems that therapist face today, it may have been harder to meet the criteria for his principles. I still feel as though these principals can be effective in any therapeutic situation. Today many person-centered therapists are focused on the family, however it has been found to be effective in many areas of therapy. I personally can see it being very effective in cases of depression, where a client is so low in positive self regard that they need to feel that someone else can actually care for them enough to listen. In research done by Greenberg and Watson (1998), of which compared client centered therapy and an experimental treatment using the principals of client centered therapy and its effect on depression, found that both had an effect on the therapy’s outcome. It was the experimental conditional along with the principals based of Rogers’s theory that ha d superior effects on the overall levels of self esteem and reduction of interpersonal problems. This research shows that although alone, these principals may not always be the exact answer, paired with other ideas it can have an impact on the client’s life. This paper is to show that these principals are in fact pillars or fundamentals of any and all problems that may be presented to a therapist. These are just attitudes that if followed correctly can bring about an atmosphere for change in a clients life. As Rogers states it, â€Å"people are essentially trustworthy, that they have a vast potential for understanding themselves and resolving their own problems without direct intervention on the therapists part, and that they are capable of self directed growth if they are involved in a specific kind of therapeutic relationship† (Corey, 2005). Corey, Gerald. (2005) Theory and Practice of Counseling Psychotherapy. Thomson Books; Belmont, CA. Greenberg L., Watson J, (1998) Experiential Therapy of Depression: Differential Effects of Client-Centered Relationship Conditions and Process Experiential Interventions. The Journal for Psychotherapy Research. Vol. 8, Number 2, pp. 210- 224 Iberg, J.R. (1996) Finding the body’s next step: Ingredients and hindrances. The Journal for focusing and experiential therapy, vol 15, 13-42. Lietaer, Germain (1993), Beyond Carl Rogers, Constable, London Prouty, Gary, (1994) Theoretical evolutions in person-centered/ experiential therapy. Applications to schizophrenic and retarded psychosis. Praeger Publishers, Westport, CT Rogers, Carl (1980) A way of being. Rogers, Carl (1992) The necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic personality change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, Dec 1992, vol. 60, No. 6 pp. 827-832. Research Papers on The Person-Centered ApproachThree Concepts of PsychodynamicThe Project Managment Office SystemOpen Architechture a white paperIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalGenetic EngineeringEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug Use